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: Competition for control over trade routes and colonies. II. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

: The war was devastating for Germany, which lost up to one-third of its population due to combat, famine, and disease. III. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) : Competition for control over trade routes and colonies

: France and Sweden gained significant lands; the independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland was officially recognized. : Competition for control over trade routes and colonies

This treaty ended the war and laid the foundation for modern international relations: : Competition for control over trade routes and colonies